ETHICS AND MORALS

Human being since time immemorial has been subjected to certain behavioural pattern and governance by a set of ethical and moral standards. However, ethics and morality are sine qua nons for a civilised and normative society.

It is for the human being to determine if he is speaking of ethical or moral acts as under the aspect of ethics or morality, as an act in its species, or as an act in a certain state of time, space, and situation.

In the work of Thomas Huxley, the practise of that which is ethically best—what we call goodness or virtue—iinvolves a course of conduct that, in all respects, is opposed to that which leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence. In place of ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of thrusting aside, or treading down, all competitors, it requires that the individual shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows; its influence is directed, not so much to the survival of the fittest, as to the fitting of as many as possible to survive. It repudiates the gladiatorial theory of existence. It demands that each man who enters into the enjoyment of the advantages of a polity be mindful of his debt to those who have laboriously constructed it and take heed that no act of his weakens the fabric in which he has been permitted to live.

 1. Outline

The commonality and acceptability of universal principles of order and norms emerge to become a standard factor across all of human civilization. The specificity and contextuality of certain ethical and normative standards became operative in relation to a certain time, space, and situation.

On the universal and specific aspects the Sanātana Dharma, the eternal way or the eternal order, is quite emphatic on both the aspects.

i. Eternal Dharma, i.e., universal and fixed eternally

ii. Swadharma: Duties performed according to one's condition and nature.

The Sanātana Dharma is transcendental and beyond time, space, and situation. The word Dharma comes from the Sanskrit root "dhri" which means "to sustain" or "that which is integral to something." This way it refers to truthfulness, virtue, honesty, asceticism, forbearance, humility, purity, chastity, and a steady demeanour. In other ways, Swami Sivananda said, "Serve, love, give, purify, meditate, realise; Be good, do good, be kind, be compassionate."

Ethics and morality outline a human being’s perimeter for living in an orderly and organised manner. They internally shape our way of living, our order, orientation, and outlook, whereas legal measures shape our lives externally.

Ethics comes from the Greek ethos, meaning character. Morality comes from the Latin moralis, meaning "customs or manners." Ethics, then, seems to pertain to the individual character of a person or persons, whereas morality seems to point to the relationships between human beings.

2. Universality vs. Particularity

There are certain standards that are universal by nature without any contextual limitation.

There are certain principles that we should follow across all contextual scenarios. Likewise, there are certain principles that we should follow in certain contexts of time, space, and situation. It is more or less related to our food habits, rituals, customs, dress code, family, marriage, etc.

 2.1. Western philosophy

The Socratic philosophy is based on the concepts of ethics, goodness, and virtue. According to Socrates, knowledge, courage, and honesty are related to these concepts.

Crucially, Socrates argued that knowledge is a virtue. Without understanding the true nature of things, it’s impossible to do good deeds, be brave, or act justly. So only through knowledge can we achieve virtue because it allows us to be aware of our actions.

The four classic cardinal virtues outlined by the Greek philosopher Plato are:

i) Prudence (includes wisdom and discernment), refers to appropriate action in appropriate time and sappropriate situation

ii) Fortitude (includes forbearance, strength, and endurance), to meet the challenges of fear, uncertainty, and intimidation.

iii) Temperance (includes self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation) to display equanimity and steadfastness in any given situation.

iv) Justice (including fairness) to display righteousness and selflessness.

Aristotle was emphatic about the "Plurality of the Character Virtues" and "The Connection of the Character Virtues."

Aristotle, in his work Nicomachean Ethics, defined a virtue as the "golden mean" between two extremes: courage between cowardice and foolhardiness, and confidence between self-deprecation and vanity. He says in the Nicomachean Ethics that "at the right times, about the right things, towards the right people, for the right end, and in the right way, is the intermediate and best condition, and this is proper to virtue."

Bertrand Russell emphasises that there are many things that would be better otherwise and that the ideals to which we do and must adhere are not realised in the realm of matter. Let us preserve our respect for truth, for beauty, for the ideal of perfection which life does not permit us to attain, though none of these things meet with the approval of the unconscious universe…The life of man, viewed outwardly, is but a small thing in comparison with the forces of Nature. The slave is doomed to worship Time, Fate, and Death because they are greater than anything he finds in himself and because all his thoughts are of things that they devour. But, as great as they are, to think of them greatly and to feel their passionless splendour is even greater. And such thought makes us free men; we no longer bow before the inevitable, but we absorb it and make it a part of ourselves. To abandon the struggle for private happiness, to expel all eagerness of temporary desire, to burn with passion for eternal things—this is emancipation, and this is the free man’s worship…

2.2. Indian Philosophy

The universal and particular aspects of ethics and morals are clearly enunciated in the Srimad Bhagavad Gita, one of the sacred scriptures of the Sanātana Dharma.

The Bhagavad Gita is a handbook of ethics. It highlights how to harmonise individual desires emanating from the body-mind-intellect complex with the aspiration of the Soul (Ātman). What should be the basic qualities a human being must uphold?

abhayaṁ sattva-sanśhuddhir jñāna-yoga-vyavasthitiḥ

dānaṁ damaśh cha yajñaśh cha svādhyāyas tapa ārjavam

ahinsā satyam akrodhas tyāgaḥ śhāntir apaiśhunam

dayā bhūteṣhv aloluptvaṁ mārdavaṁ hrīr achāpalam

tejaḥ kṣhamā dhṛitiḥ śhaucham adroho nāti-mānitā

bhavanti sampadaṁ daivīm abhijātasya bhārata

Sri Krishna says, "O scion of Bharat, these are the saintly virtues of those endowed with a divine nature: fearlessness, purity of mind, steadfastness in spiritual knowledge, charity, control of the senses, sacrifice, study of the sacred books, austerity, and straightforwardness; non-violence, truthfulness, absence of anger, renunciation, peacefulness, restraint from fault-finding, compassion towards all living beings, absence of covetousness, gentleness, modesty, and lack of fickleness; vigor, forgiveness, fortitude, cleanliness, bearing enmity towards none, and absence of vanity

Here, Sri Krishna describes twenty-six virtues of a saintly nature. These should be cultivated as part of our spiritual practise for elevating ourselves to the supreme goal.

 Sri Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita that opposite to the divine qualities are the demoniac qualities.

dambho darpo ’bhimānaśh cha krodhaḥ pāruṣhyam eva cha

ajñānaṁ chābhijātasya pārtha sampadam āsurīm

The demoniac qualities are hypocrisy, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, and ignorance. The behaviour of demoniac-natured people is arrogant and disrespectful to others. They are proud and conceited about their bodily possessions and designations, such as wealth, education, beauty, position, etc. They become angry when, due to a lack of control over the mind, their lust and greed are frustrated. They are cruel and harsh, and their interactions with them are devoid of sensitivity for others’ sufferings. They have no understanding of spiritual principles and hold unrighteousness to be righteousness.

The Upanishads deal with meditation, philosophy, consciousness, and ontology. The Great Sayings or the "Mahāvākyas" of the Upanishadas tersely say Brahmān is one and infinity, which have a profound significance as pointers to Reality. Consciousness of the Supreme Being is the foremost virtue.

3. Remarks

Ethics and morality make claims upon human beings that are stronger than the claims of the laws and take priority over self-interest. Human beings by nature have basic duties and obligations, which they need to adhere to. There are duties that need to be performed and others that need to be avoided. In other words, there is an ethical dimension to human existence. As human beings, we experience life in a world of good and evil and understand certain kinds of actions in terms of right and wrong. The very structure of human existence dictates that we must make choices. Ethics helps us use our freedom responsibly and understand who we are. And, ethics gives direction in our struggle to answer the fundamental questions that ask how we should live our lives and how we can make right choices.

Universality vs particularity in ethics and morals signify that there are certain universal principles valid for across time, space and situation; and simultaneously particularities of ethics that can support "cultural and individual diversity." On the other hand, certain particular principles co-evolve through the dynamics of change in relation to time, space, and situation. It does not mean one principle is bad in relation to the other; rather, specific principles evolve specific to other evolving paraphernalia specific to certain cultural, social, geographic, economic, and political settings.

-Asutosh Satpathy